Gender Inequality in Human Capital Formation, Accumulation and Labour Market Outcome: An Analysis Using Periodic Labour Force Survey

Sefali Verma , IIPS Mumbai

Women have endured systemic disadvantages in education, skill acquisition, and economic participation Since time immemorial.Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (2022-23), the present study documents the evidence for gender disparities in human capital accumulation and formation across Indian states. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses are employed to identify patterns and determinants of inequality in education and employment. Findings indicate that women remain significantly disadvantaged in both human capital formation, accumulation and labour participation. About 25.3 percent of women are illiterate or below primary level compared to 13.0 percent of men, and only 20.17 percent of women have received vocational training compared with 37.68 percent of men. The female labour force participation rate (40.07 percent) is nearly half that of males (80.76 percent). Regression results show that being female reduces the odds of formal employment by 24.8 percent, even after controlling for education and training.While 97 % females are never attended or not attending any education institute due to responsibility of domestic chores compared to only 3% of males. These enduring inequalities not only restrict individual advancement but also represent an unmeasured opportunity cost for society — the loss of potential productivity and innovation that equitable participation could generate. Addressing these disparities through inclusive education, targeted skill development, and gender-sensitive labour policies is vital for achieving both equality and sustainable development.

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 Presented in Session 76. The Gendered Dimension of Human Capital